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SMALL BOOKS 

ON 

GREAT SUBJECTS. 



PHILOSOPHICAL 

• THEORIES 

AND 

PHILOSOPHICAL 

EXPERIENCE. 

(FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.) 



PHILADELPHIA: 

LEA AND BLANCHARD. 

1846. 



SMALL BOOKS ON GREAT SUBJECTS. 



EDITED BY A 



FEW WELL-WISHERS TO KNOWLEDGE. 



No. I. 



PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES 



PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIENCE. 



BY A PARIAH. 



FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION. 



&*&*»#><»///$ &* %*//»*. ^^nets tfft* 



PHILADELPHIA; 

LEA AND BLANCHARD, 

1846. 






W EXCHANGE 
i \ 

Mr 3 '03 



PHILADELPHIA : 

T. K. AND P. G. COLLINS, 

PRINTERS. 



ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND 
EDITION. 

When the Pariah first published his lucubrations 
to the world, he scarcely expected that they would 
meet with so favorable a reception as to call for a 
second edition: in this, it appears, he had deceived 
himself; and he now sends his " small book" to the 
press a second time, with the gratified feeling that 
he has not labored altogether in vain. He does not, in 
the guise of writers on lesser subjects, return thanks 
to the public for its liberal patronage, for profit and 
fame were no part of his object; but he rejoices in 
the thought that he may perhaps have contributed 
somewhat towards the advance of that kingdom of 
Christ on earth, which has hitherto been the object 
of our wishes rather than our expectations. 

The success of his small work seems to indicate 
that many are beginning to feel the want of some- 
thing which should teach them, not only the Chris- 
tian faith, — for of such there are abundance, — but its 
rational grounds ; something which by showing how 
deeply it is rooted in, and entwined with everything 
about and within us, may prove that the Framer of 
the world and its Lawgiver are the same ; and thus 
lead them to the cross of the Redeemer, with the 
full conviction that the lesson to be learned there is 
no " cunningly devised fable," but that in truth "the 
wisdom of God" no less than "the power of God" 
was there manifested to the world. 

This was the object which the writer proposed to 
himself when he first attempted to put into a porta- 



VI ADVERTISEMENT. 

ble form the result of many years' thought, and ex- 
perience gained through suffering. Faith, without 
rational conviction, is but like the seed which fell 
in dry places ; it withers when the hour of trial 
comes ; for it has not rooted itself deeply enough 
in the mind to draw thence wholesome nourishment ; 
and hence perhaps arises much of that " falling away" 
as it is technically termed, which occasionally 
scandalizes the world among professing Christians. 
The man, on the contrary, who has cleared and 
worked the soil beforehand, for the reception of the 
seed sown by the Divine Husbandman, is at least in 
a fair way of seeing it bear good fruit. 

To handle the spade, and root up weeds, is a toil 
permitted, and indeed appropriated to the lowest caste 
in society, though to turn up the ground to make it 
ready for the heavenly seed, be a task which angels 
might be proud of. Humbly, and yet boldly, there- 
fore, as becomes one of a despised and oppressed 
caste on a noble mission, he has addressed himself 
to his work ; and, like a wiser and better man,* 
has bent his knee to the Throne of all grace, and 
asked for a blessing on his attempt. If any success 
has attended his endeavors, he feels that it is to the 
sanctifying effect of such a prayer on his own mind 
that he owes it: may the reader, like the writer, 
gain, while turning up the soil, the treasure of a 
firm faith in Him who is the Truth and the 
Life, and who is always found by those who seek 
Him. 

And with this heartfelt good wish, kind reader, the 
writer takes his leave of thee for the present. 

November 10, 1844. 

* Joseph Mede. 



PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES. 

There was a time when none dared profane the 
name of philosophy by its mention, whose lips had 
not been touched with hallowed flame by Alma 
Mater, and who had not dozens of honorary letters 
following his name, like the tail of a Highland chief- 
tain in olden days : but that time is past : men have 
at last discovered that the conferring a degree does not 
always confer sense, and that among the undignified 
names which go with neither a footman behind, nor 
a coachman before them, there may be found some 
who have a nobility of their own ; and who, amid 
disadvantages and difficulties, have contrived to assert 
their right to the peerage of Intellect. 

The writer of this work, as the title-page shows, 
is below even this ; he is a Pariah, of a despised 
caste ; unthought of even when the ten pounds 
householders of Stroud or Tamworth have the 
honor of hearing speeches from, and asking ques- 
tions of, the great men who in this country are 
seized with a periodical fit of humility about once 
in four or five years. He has no pretensions to aca- 
demical honors, lectures to no institution, is no he- 
reditary legislator, no limb of representative wisdom: 
but he has known poverty, sickness, and sorrow ; 
he has bent over the graves of those he loved, and 
turned again to life to struggle for his own existence, 
and in this rude school he has learned a lesson which, 
perhaps, may be not unuseful to his fellow-creatures ; 
he has learned that happiness may be attained under 
circumstances which seem to forbid it ; wrongs borne 



8 PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES. 

patiently without losing dignity ; privations endured 
with a gay heart. The philosophy which has done 
this has made its last and best step, — it has become 
practical. It is no longer the barren speculation of 
the metaphysician, or the idle logic of the schools, 
but healthy intellectual science, grounded on the 
great facts of human nature, and available in all the 
circumstances of our varied existence. 

There was a time too, — how much of late has 
sunk in the troubled ocean of human affairs even in 
the space of one not very long life ! — there was a 
time when intellectual science under the name of 
metaphysics, was the mark for every witling to try 
his young jests on, sure of a favorable reception 
from the great body of his hearers. It is one of the 
singular facts of our social state, that there are always 
some few things which no one who pretends to 
enter good society ought to know ; and if all these 
pet ignorances had had their tombstones erected, and 
epitaphs duly written by their admirers, it would be 
hard to conceive a more amusing, though in truth 
melancholy record of human folly. In the days of 
Addison, no well-bred lady would venture to know 
how to spell ; in later times the prohibition only ex- 
tended to any cultivation of the intellectual powers, 
which for a long time was most religiously attended 
to by all the fair votaries of fashion. In the days 
of Fielding, it would seem that a very pretty gentle- 
man indeed, might gain a grace by misquoting Latin 
sufficiently to show that he despised the dull routine 
of school education. Later yet, a mineralogist or a 
botanist walked a few inches higher, if he could 
avow himself ignorant of metaphysics, and make 
some clever jest on the cobweb speculations of its 
admirers ; and all, learned or ignorant, wise or fool- 
;ish, still unite in thinking it the properest thing in 



PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES. y 

the world to be totally ignorant of the properties of 
drugs, or their effect on the human body. True it 
is that a healthy mind in a healthy body is a thing 
worth having ; a few deny that : and intellectual 
and medical science may do somewhat towards the 
preservation of both ; this is also allowed : but to 
attempt to know anything about the matter is really 
too fatiguing for polished people, who can afford to 
pay tutors and physicians. But the writer is a 
Pariah, and having said thus much, he need hardly 
assure his readers, if any of that so-named " gentle" 
race ever take up these pages, that he never was 
great, or fashionable, or scientific enough, to have a 
pet of this kind : it would have been a troublesome, 
sometimes an expensive, always a disagreeable com- 
panion, a great hindrance to all rational employment, 
and no help to one who not unfrequently has found 
his wits his best heritage. 

If such an one cannot afford to keep a pet igno- 
rance, so neither can he afford to carry on abstract 
speculations which lead to no practical result : cor- 
poreal wants must be attended to ; the difficulties of 
this life must be met and vanquished ; and if in the 
midst of the struggles requisite to avoid being trod- 
den under foot in the crowd, those great questions, 
which sooner or later occur to every reasonable 
mind, present themselves, it is not as curious con- 
templations, matters of philosophical research merely, 
which may occupy a portion of the time which is 
gliding away in the lap of ease and luxury, but as 
problems whose solution involves everything worth 
caring for in time or in eternity ; problems whose due 
solution may gild a life which has no other gilding, 
may set fortune at defiance, direct our steps in diffi- 
culties, and like oil upon the waves, spread calm 
where all was turmoil and danger before : it is then 



10 PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES. 

that intellectual science loses its character of barren 
speculation ; every step in advance raises us farther 
above the mists of earth ; and the heart warms, and 
the limbs grow strong, at seeing the prospect bright- 
ening in the distance, under the unclouded beams of 
truth and love. 

It seems, nevertheless, to be necessary that science, 
as well as man, should pass through its different 
stages of growth ; at first, theoretic and fanciful, then 
abstruse, and finally, vigorous and practical. Astro- 
nomy has so proceeded; many a small wit jested at 
the idle "star-gazing" of Flamsted and H alley as 
satisfactorily as the same genus has scoffed from age 
to age at the "unintelligible" reveries of Socrates, 
or any other seeker of the truth, from Pythagoras 
down to Dugald Stewart and Theodore Jouffroy ; 
but no small wit now tries to ground his fame on a 
successful scoff at "star-gazers;" even Butler's 
"Elephant in the Moon" has followed the fate of 
the jests of lesser men, it is neither quoted, nor per- 
haps by the generality of the world remembered; 
and the science which guides the mariner over an 
untracked ocean with all the assurance of a mapped 
country, sits enthroned in the affections no less than 
the respect of the present generation. It is time 
that metaphysical, or, as I would rather term it, in- 
tellectual science,* should take a like place, for it has 

* ee Taken in its largest comprehension, as the knowledge of 
abstract and separate substances, Aristotle raises the philosophy 
of mind above all other parts of learning. He assigns to it the 
investigation of the principles and causes of things in general, 
and ranks it not only as superior, but also as prior in the order 
of Nature, to the whole of Arts and Sciences. But c what is first 
to Nature is not first to Man. Nature begins with causes, which 
produce effects. Man begins with effects, and by them ascends 
to causes. Thus all human study and investigation proceed of 
necessity in the reverse of the natural order of things j from 



PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES. 11 

in its power to do a greater work than this : it can 
map the gulph between earth and heaven, and teach 
man, amid the conflicting opinions of the pilots who 
undertake to steer his bark, to choose and follow the 
straight course which will lead him over that un- 
tracked ocean in safety. The great men whose 
lives were spent in the pursuit of abstract truth, have 
left the results of their labors to us, and as the fan- 
ciful dreams of proportion in numbers, pushed at 
last to the exactness of mathematical science, have 
given us practical astronomy, so it is for us now to 
avail ourselves of the severe truth to which they 
have reduced the more imaginative Greek philoso- 
phy, and draw from it practical metaphysic. 

Had any one else appeared inclined to undertake 
the task, the writer would willingly have left it in 
the hands of the learned and the illustrious in science ; 
but no such attempt seems likely to be made, and 
as there are but too many of the Pariah race, who, 
like himself, may find that something more than the 
trite instruction of the school-room, or even the pul- 

sensible to intelligible, from body, the effect, to mind, which 
is both the first and final cause. Now physic being the name 
given by the Peripatetic to the philosophy of body, from this 
necessary course of human studies, some of his interpreters 
called that of mind, Metaphysic rwv justcl ra (pun**, implying 
also by the term, that its subject being more sublime and diffi- 
cult than any other, as relating to universals, the study of it 
would come most properly and successfully after that of physics. 
Taking it, however, in its natural order, as furnishing the gene- 
ral principles of all other parts of learning which descend from 
thence to the cultivation of particular subjects, Aristotle himself 
called this the First Philosophy; but as its subject is universal 
being, particularly mind, which is the highest and most univer- 
sal, he gave it also the appellation of the Universal Science, 
common to all the rest; and lastly, to finish his encomium of 
this First and Universal philosophy, he honored it with the 
exclusive name of 'Wisdom.'" — Tatham's Chart and Scale of 
Truth, vol. i. p. 17. 



12 PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES. 

pit, is wanting to brace the mind to resist the rude 
buffets of the world, he at length steps forward, not 
as thinking himself wise, but as feeling himself 
experienced :— 

" Nee nos via fallit euntes : 



Vidimus obscuris primara sub vallibus urbem 
Venatu assiduo, et totum cognovimus amnera." 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

There are some few important questions which 
have been constantly agitated from the earliest period 
that we have any record of man's history. The 
answers attempted have been various ; but none, as 
yet, have been so generally satisfactory as to prevent 
them from being agitated afresh by every new gene- 
ration, for to every new generation they present them- 
selves with a never-fading interest. 

Man goes forth at his entrance into life, confident 
in powers which, to his youthful fancy, seem to know 
no limit ; he feels the happiness that his nature is 
capable of, and that it sighs for, and he rushes on to 
grasp and to enjoy it; but he soon perceives that a 
power, exterior to himself, limits, and often thwarts 
his endeavors ; he finds himself at the mercy of 
circumstances which he can rarely guide, or at best 
only in a very slight degree ; and amid the anguish 
of disppointed hope he asks himself, " What is this 
power which I can neither control nor escape 
from?" 

But he is young ; he has probably expected to find 
his happiness in the pleasures of the senses ; and a 
voice within him says that these are gross, and un- 
worthy of the god-like nature which he is conscious 
of possessing. He launches into the pursuits of the 
man ; forces himself to acquire science and greatness 
at the expense of exertions which exhaust his phy- 
sical strength ; and then, when almost sinking under 
the fatigue of labors which, nevertheless, have not 
given him all that he sought, he asks himself again, 



14 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

" What is this restless power within, which despises 
corporeal enjoyment, and triumphs in compelling the 
sacrifice of bodily comfort for an object which, after 
all, none attain?" 

Insurmountable obstacles limit his progress ; the 
perverseness of men thwarts his views for their 
benefit no less than his own; he looks round him 
in querulous displeasure, and again exclaims, " Why 
is evil in the world?" But old age now approaches, 
"his thoughts" must " perish" ere he has accom- 
plished half that he has proposed to himself; he 
must " go hence and be no more seen," before he has 
even attained the fruit of his labors ; he seems to 
have " walked in a vain shadow, and disquieted him- 
self in vain;" and then, when all that has filled his 
great aspirations seems shrinking from his grasp, 
when all appears "vanity and vexation of spirit," 
he once more asks in a sort of concentrated despair, 
" Why man proposes ends to himself which he can 
never compass ? What is the good which his nature 
demands, and how is it to be obtained? Is it sensual 
enjoyment? No ! such pleasures pall on the senses, 
and end in disgust. Is it intellectual? The limited 
powers of men make the pursuit of science laborious, 
and death comes ere he has reached what he sought. 
Is it in the innocent enjoyments of social life? 
These are soon buried in the graves of those he 
loves. 

These are the questions which every man not 
wholly brutalized must sooner or later ask himself. 
These are the questions, in fact, which have agitated 
mankind in all ages, and whose solution forms the 
basis of all systems of religion and philosophy. 
They all may be resolved into three ; namely, 

1. What is the nature of the power exterior to 
ourselves ? 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 15 

2. What is the nature of the power within our- 
selves ? 

3. What, with reference to these two, is the na- 
ture of the good which man ought to propose to him- 
self as his aim and object? 

The solution of the first two questions forms the 
subject of all metaphysical, or in other words, intel- 
lectual science. That of the third gives the prac- 
tical result. Systems of religion decide these ques- 
tions authoritatively, systems of philosophy solve 
them by rational argument, and as, however nume- 
merous these systems may be, there can be but one 
Truth, so we are justified in assuming that the 
religious and the philosophical system must tally, 
or that one or the other is in error. There is, how- 
ever, this difference between the two, viz., that the 
authoritative system is necessarily delivered in the 
form of dogmata to be received, not of arguments 
to be tried and weighed; and these dogmata are 
couched in words which, as no previous course of 
reasoning is recorded, are liable to be misinterpreted 
by the prejudices of mankind. The philosophical 
system, on the contrary, is obliged to prove its as- 
sertions step by step; and if an undue leaning to 
any preconceived notion should lead to the adoption 
of a weak argument, the first dispassionate man who 
goes over the same ground will perceive and over- 
throw it : thus, though in the case of sufficiency of 
external evidence to prove the pretensions of the first 
to be well grounded, it is the shorter process, and 
therefore most acceptable to man's indolence ; yet 
the second is the more certain one. To be com- 
pletely satisfactory, the two should be joined toge- 
ther ; but though occasionally a voice has been raised 
to call for this auspicious union, unfortunately for 
the world, the guardians of the former have gene- 



16 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

rally held her to be too rich a bride to be bestowed 
on a mate who had no better inheritance than So- 
crates' old cloak and worn sandals, and have " for- 
bidden the banns." The consequences have been 
disastrous : philosophy, like a wild youth, has run 
through a course of licentiousness ; and religion, like 
a wealthy heiress, has become the prey of designing 
men. It is, perhaps, not too late to rescue both. Let 
us then begin with philosophy, whose morals — 
whatever they might have been while he was So- 
crates' pupil — have in later times been thought by 
no means faultless. 

It would be a long, and, to a reader — a weari- 
some task, to go over all the disputes which have 
agitated the learned through so many centuries, as 
to moral perceptions, innate ideas, &c. He who 
would map a country must explore the by-roads ; 
but he who uses the map, if he finds the road laid 
down lead to the place he wishes to arrive at, will 
not think it needful to traverse every lane on his 
way. It will suffice, therefore, to assume as an 
axiom, — what nobody, probably, will deny, — that 
truth is reality, namely, what really is; error an 
unfounded persuasion of something that is not. 
Now what is, must be either within or exterior to 
ourselves ; and to know what is exterior to our- 
selves truly, that is, in its reality, we must examine 
it by the evidence of our senses, or by that of our 
reasoning faculties, or by both conjointly. There 
is no other process by which we can arrive at a 
certainty of knowledge. Thus, then, as an innate 
idea is one which must be received in the mind as 
truth without previous evidence, an innate idea of 
what is exterior to ourselves is a contradiction, and 
the common voice of mankind has decided on the 
point, by characterizing those who receive the per- 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 17 

suasions of the imagination in the room of evidence 
as insane. Nor is the impressing itself on the 
mind without previous evidence the only necessary- 
character of an innate idea ; it must also be found 
in the minds of all mankind as a constituent part of 
their nature, otherwise it cannot be innate. It will 
soon be seen that there is only one idea which can 
answer to this description, namely, that of indivi- 
duality, whose demonstration rests on that very 
individual consciousness, an evidence so unhesitat- 
ingly allowed by all mankind, that were any one to 
attempt to overthrow it by arguing that assertion is 
no proof, he might make good his position, and yet 
convince no one : for all feel that in order to assert 
individual existence it is requisite that a man 
should exist. But all impressions received by this 
individual consciousness are exterior to it, and con- 
sequently require to be examined ; and thus intel- 
lectual science, like all others, becomes the subject 
of experiment and inquiry, and can only make pro- 
gress by being classified and arranged so as to ena- 
ble different individuals and succeeding generations 
to pursue and record their observations upon differ- 
ent portions of it. Even that part which Bacon 
himself hesitated to subject to the rules of his expe- 
rimental philosophy, namely, religious knowledge, 
must submit to the same sort of examination : for 
from whatever quarter the authoritative dogma 
comes, it is presented to the senses from without, 
and cannot be received as authority, without suffi- 
cient evidence, both external and internal, to satisfy 
the mind of its truth ; and as in classifying, the 
most natural arrangement is always the most in- 
telligible, so the great questions which man's ex- 
perience in life never fails to suggest to him, afford 
2 



18 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

at once the simplest and the best division of the 
subject. 

I. What is the nature of the power exterior to 
ourselves ? 

Man's first step, when this inquiry has suggested 
itself to his mind, is to look round on the objects 
amid which he moves, and which often appear to 
be the active agents in causing him either enjoy- 
ment or suffering. Does the power which controls 
him exist there ? The untaught savage perhaps 
answers, yes, and selects his fetiche from the first 
thing that strikes his fancy. A little more cultiva- 
tion sends him from the fetiche to something less 
tangible, and of greater apparent energy, and the 
heavenly bodies are adored ; but when the question 
occurs in an age of more advancement, a very dif- 
ferent process must be resorted to, in order to 
satisfy a mind accustomed to the severity of demon- 
stration required by real science. We perceive an 
universe whose slightest movement we are unable 
to regulate ; after ages of thought and observation, 
we think it our glory that we have arrived at the 
discovery of the laws by which it coheres ; but they 
are so totally beyond our power to alter, that we 
can only hope to effect our purpose by shaping it 
in conformity to them. We have subjected these 
laws to the strictest examination; we cannot doubt 
that we have arrived at the truth, but these immuta- 
ble laws provide only for the regular movement of 
inert matter. We look round again ; we are sur- 
rounded by organized bodies, and we have not yet 
discovered the law by which they exist. We con- 
verse with our fellows, and find something beyond 
organized life merely ; we find intellect, that subtle 
agent by which our inquiries are carried on, itself 
offering a problem of no small difficulty. The con- 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 19 

elusion from all this, — ascending by a legitimate 
process of induction, from what we see and hear 
to what we cannot discern by any of our external 
senses, and can only apprehend by means of our 
reasoning faculties, — is, that some power must exist 
capable of giving birth to all this ; and as "ex nihilo 
nihil fit," had there ever been a time when there 
was nothing, there never could have been a begin- 
ning of existence, therefore that power must be eter- 
nal ; and as there is nothing but inorganized matter 
that bears a character of permanency, and the notion 
of an eternal series is an absurdity ; so to produce 
organized and intelligent beings, that eternal power 
must be intelligent. How much superior the creat- 
ing intelligence must be to that created, the man who 
has constructed a steam-engine may guess ; for he 
knows at what an inconceivable distance in the scale 
of being he stands from the machine he has put to- 
gether. 

The power exterior to ourselves, then, is eternal 
and intelligent, and what is eternal, is of necessity 
self-existent. Now it is a necessary consequence 
of self-existence that such a being must be unlimited 
both in power and knowledge; for as he himself 
exists by his own will, therefore his own nature, no 
less than all other natures existing by his will, must 
be perfectly known to him, and entirely under his 
control, and what is unlimited must be One ; for to 
suppose a second eternal principle would be to sup- 
pose a second individual will and purpose, which 
must produce a constant warfare, and would derange 
all the operations of nature, whose laws, on the con- 
trary, we find to be immutable. For an incorporeal 
being can have no individuality but in will and pur- 
pose, and if the will be one, then there is an amal- 
gamation of nature. Thus by a legitimate course of 
reasoning, we arrive at the certainty of one eternal, 



20 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

self-existent, all-wise, and all-powerful Being, whom 
our simple ancestors, with a degree of philosophical 
accuracy which no other nation seems to have reached, 
named yo§, i. e. good, for to such a being alone could 
the perfection belong which justly deserves that ap- 
pellation. 

But we have not even yet exhausted the conse- 
quences of this chain of reasoning ; for the all-wise 
and all-powerful Being must be able to effect his 
will, whatever it may be. We may again look round 
us, and judge from what we see, what that will is. 
We see a profusion of means to convey pleasure ; a 
profusion of creatures seemingly made to enjoy it, 
especially among the lower grades of organized 
beings. We have already proved that the eternal 
Intelligence can effect his will, whatever it be ; then 
if that will were malevolent, we should see and feel 
nothing but destruction and misery ; but we do not 
see it ; then that will is not malevolent. 

But the sad questioner who began the inquiry as 
to the nature of this eternal power, may perhaps 
again inquire, " If the will of the Creator be benevo- 
lent, why am I controlled in my wishes, limited to 
a life which is too short for my projects, and often 
made miserable during that short life by sickness or 
by the loss of what I had centred my whole joy in?" 
But who has assured you that these few years elaps- 
ing between the cradle and the tomb are all? The 
will of the eternal Being is not malevolent, beings of 
a far lower grade fulfil the end of their being and are 
happy ; you aspire to something which the short span 
of life never gives. Is it not a proof that your nature 
is not bounded by that span ? Turn then to the next 
question, for it is now time to do so. 

II. What is the nature of the power within our- 
selves ? 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 21 

Our only way of investigating an intangible and 
invisible power is by its effects ; we can, therefore, 
only judge of what the power within ourselves is, by 
noting the phenomena of human nature ; these on a 
little consideration, will be found to resolve them- 
selves into three classes. 

1. The instinctive emotions and appetites, all aris- 
ing involuntarily, attended with a sensible bodily 
effect, and causing derangement of bodily health 
when in excess; anger, fear, &c, all take their place 
among these. 

2. The faculties ; which are exercised by choice, 
but suffer fatigue in the exercise, require rest, and 
exhibit other symptoms of their animal origin, but 
nevertheless slumber, if not called into activity by a 
voluntary act. 

3. The acts of a restless undivided will, which 
requires no repose, suffers no fatigue ; is as strong 
in the child or the dotard, as in the mature man ; 
which claims for itself the whole individuality of ex- 
istence, and speaks of my body, my faculties, but 
never seems to have the most distant conception that 
this body or these faculties are identical with itself. 

It is quite clear that neither of the two first classes 
of phenomena can be referred to that power within 
whose nature we are seeking to ascertain, for this 
often curbs and contradicts the instinctive emotions, 
and impels the faculties to continued exertion, when 
weariness, and pain even, show how much they need 
repose. Animal nature does not seek to destroy 
itself knowingly, but man knows that his life is the 
forfeit of a particular course of action, and yet he 
pursues it : then the impelling power is of a different 
nature from the powers which it impels. It is this 
impelling individual will, then, or " personal power," 



22 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

(as it has been aptly termed by a philospher* whose 
works deserve to be more known than they are,) that 
must form the subject of our inquiry; for on its real 
nature depends the answer to the last question, as to 
what the good is which man has to seek, and what 
are the means to obtain that good. 

The first indication of this power is seen in the 
infant angry at its own helplessness, and evincing its 
discontent by passionate struggles and cries. The 
individual will has come into a scene which it does 
not understand, has organs which are insufficient for 
its desires, and in mere wayward spite, beats the 
nurse for not comprehending what is the matter. 
Watch the growing child ; questions, curious observa- 
tions, obstinate persistence in its own views, show 
a power which is rather seeking information for its 
own guidance, than by any means partaking in the 
immaturity of the childish bodily form. Stronger 
beings have a will also, which they enforce by the 
infliction of punishment ; the child resists till pain 
teaches him to choose the lesser evil, and the point 
is yielded just when pain or privation has reached 
the point of being more irksome than the concession 
demanded ;t this concession very generally being not 

* Theodore Jouffroy. " Melanges Philosophiques — Des facul- 
tes de l'ame humaine." 

t It maybe objected by some, that the higher animals exhibit 
some traces of this independent will ; but before this objection 
be allowed weight, it ought to be considered that there is an 
animal will, the result of mere organization ; the impulse of sen- 
sation mechanically propagated through the nerves and brain, 
until the nerves of voluntary motion in their turn receive and 
propagate the excitement to the muscles ; which is, in fact, the 
whole mystery of instinct. It will be difficult to show that in 
animals anything more than this instinctive will is ever dis- 
covered, but even supposing there were, let the argument have 
its weight; it might go to prove, perhaps, that the occasional 
sufferings of the animal creation are parts of a system not yet 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 23 

the sacrifice of any instinctive desire, but some en- 
deavor at independence in a thing which is itself of 
little consequence. The child arrives at maturity, 
and a fresh struggle for freedom commences. Life 
is thrown away as mere dust, to cast off slavery or 
preserve free institutions, for man has discovered 
practically that his nature only arrives at its highest 
point in a state of rational independence. Old age 
and sickness supervene ; does this restless power, 
then, yield to circumstances ? No. Impatience at 
the failure of the organs which have been wont to 
do its bidding, is the usual concomitant of these, and 
if we do not find impatience, it is only because it is 
curbed by the knowledge which the imperious spirit 
has at last gained, that this worn and enfeebled 
body is not its home, and that brighter days are ap- 
proaching. When Maskelyne, amid the wreck caused 
by old age and palsy, blessed the child that sought 
him with affection, and could only utter " great man 
once," — was the personal power less strong ? Those 
few words showed what he would again have done, 
had he but had the organs requisite for the work. 
In sleep even, this voluntary power slumbers not ; 
it resigns the reins, indeed, for a time, on the repeated 
petition of eyes, limbs, and brain, all declaring that 
they can do no more ; but it remains on the watch 

fully developed, but it alters not the case as regards man, for 
we cannot argue from unknown premises; and before we can 
draw any deduction from animal nature to apply to our own, we 
must know much more about it than we do. The pride of man 
has disclaimed the fellowship of the animal creation, but we 
should be puzzled to find any sufficient proof one way or the 
other; let us then be contented to leave this matter where we 
found it, and argue only from what we know, satisfied that man 
will suffer no deterioration, even if 

" in that distant sky 
His faithful dog should bear him company." 



24 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

to use whip and spur again the moment it finds its 
servants capable of action. If any one doubt this, 
let him only strongly resolve, at going to sleep, to 
wake at a particular hour or a particular sound ; and 
without any other known cause than the will, behold 
the man wakes, though, in any other case, he would 
have slept to a much later hour, or continued asleep 
through much louder sounds. This is a thing of too 
common occurrence to require particular instances 
to be given. Finally, in death itself, the last symptom 
of life that we see, is usually an ineffectual effort to 
do or say something which the dying person evidently 
thinks of importance; disappointment at being unable 
to do it, is visible, and the man dies. 

We have traced the body from helplessness to 
death ; it varies in its powers : first some instincts 
prevail, then others ; then the faculties are deve- 
loped, and then they fail. We can easily conceive 
that this waxing and waning power may return to 
its elements and be recompounded in a fresh form : 
but the unchanged individuality, which neither grows 
nor decays, how is this to perish ? What seeds of 
mortality can we find in that ? The anatomist traces 
nerves of sensation, influencing in their turn the 
nerves of voluntary action, and shows a beautiful 
arrangement thus made for the preservation of the 
animal; but the individual power steps in, says to 
sensation, " You may stimulate the nerves of volun- 
tary action, but I forbid it;" and to the nerves of 
voluntary action, " You shall not wait for the stimu- 
lus of sensation; I command, and you shall do my 
bidding." In what part of bodily organization then 
is this power seated? The philosophical seeker of 
the truth must answer. It is not a part of bodily 
organization: it shares not in the growth or decay 
of the body; then by analogy, neither does it share 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 25 

in its death ;* it sighs for other joys, despises what 
the body offers, spurns at the limited span of life. 
What is this but an indication of its destiny 1 Hap- 
piness consists in the full development of all the 
powers of Nature : no animal seeks that which it is 
unable to enjoy — the fish remains quiet in the water 
without seeking to quit it to share the pleasures of 
the quadruped or the fowl. Man sighs for the fe- 
licity of the deity; then man is of a kindred nature. 
We proceed therefore to the final question. 

III. What, with reference to the two powers 
already treated of, is the nature of the good which 
man ought to propose to himself as his aim and 
object? 

Our inquiry here will not be long. Whatever 
other orders of intelligent beings there may be, there 
are only two that we can form any judgment of: — 
The One, the subject of our first, the other that of 
our second question. We assume it as an axiom in 
philosophy that the felicity of the being must con- 
sist in the full development of its natural powers, 

* In proportion as science advances, the great truths of 
Christianity stand forth in a clearer light. In former times the 
life and the soul were considered as identical, and many a puz- 
zling question arose out of this mistake. Now, physiology has 
shown that the vital power, inscrutable as its nature has hitherto 
been found, is nevertheless the same in the animal and the vege- 
table ; consequently that life is not dependent on the soul, but 
is a perfectly distinct force, acting by its own peculiar laws. 
But though the soul and the life be different, still the former is 
an acting force which the physiologist is obliged to acknow- 
ledge ; for it not unfrequently contends with the vital force, and 
oocasions much disturbance in the system. One of the most 
distinguished scientific writers of the present age, when treating 
of organism, distinctly reckons this disturbing force among the 
different independent causes of the phenomena of man's being. 
Thus it is that science and religion, the two great inscriptions 
on God's fabric of creation, always tell the same tale, though 
it be written in different characters. 
3 



26 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

and we see this to be the case with all the inferior 
grades of animals ; we turn to man, and we see that 
the development of his animal powers does not 
satisfy him, he asks for more ; he asks for knowledge, 
greatness, immortality, and these are the felicities of 
the Deity; then, the good which he has to seek can 
be none other than the development of an intelligent, 
and not an animal nature. We have already seen 
that the individuality is concentred in that interior 
power whose nature we have been examining; that 
interior power is akin to the Deity : then the felicity 
of the Deity in kind, though not in degree, may be 
his, and no rational man will propose to himself 
any other. 

Such are the conclusions of philosophy, such 
were its conclusions from the time when these ques- 
tions were first agitated, and wise and good men, 
long before our era, had suffered exile, imprisonment 
and death, rather than abstain from promulgating 
these great truths. Who now will dare to stand 
forward and say that there is any "just cause 
or impediment" why philosophy and Christianity 
should not plight their troth to each other, and bless 
the world henceforward by their holy union ? Once 
more, " I publish the banns," and defy man to put 
asunder those whom God has willed should be 
joined together. " Fecisti nos tibi etmanet cor irre- 
quietum donee .restat in te,"* was the sentiment of 
Augustine, "Ex vita ita discedo tanquam ex hospitio 
non tanquam ex domo," says Cicero in the character 
of Cato, " O prseclarum diem cum ad ilium divinum 
animorum concilium, coetumque proficiscar ; cum- 



* " Thou hast made us for thyself, and the heart is unquiet 
till it rests in Thee." 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 27 

que ex hac turba et colluvione discedam !"* Where 
is the difference between the philosopher and the 
Christian ? 

I have now gone over the general outline of the 
classification w r hich I propose to make of intellectual 
science. I have, I think, proved in answer to the 
first question that there exists an eternal self-existent, 
creating Intelligence ; all-wise, all-powerful, and bene- 
volent ; and the portion of intellectual science which 
treats of this Being I propose to call Theology A 

I have, I think, proved in answer to the second 
question, that the individuality of man consists in a 
restless, undying intelligence, akin in its nature to 
that of the Deity ; and I propose to call the portion 
of intellectual science which relates to the functions 
of this intelligent, individual power, Psychology. 

I have drawn as a conclusion in answer to the 
third question, That such being the nature of that 
individual power, the good it has to seek is, assimi- 

* " what a delightful day will it be when I shall join that 
company of divine souls — when I shall quit this throng and this 
mire !" 

t The term Theology has been so long applied to a peculiar 
department of literature that the meaning of the word is in 
great measure forgotten. I reclaim for it the original sense; for 
as Conchology means the science which tells of the nature of 
shells, or Geology that which tells of the nature of the earth, so 
Theology in strictness means the science which tells of the na- 
ture of God ; and it is misapplied when used to classify works 
which mix up the moral duties and the prospects of man, with 
the abstract science of the Divine Essence. The word would 
be novel, but it would aid us to define the limits and objects of 
the science much better, if we were to include all that relates 
to the mission of Christ to man, and the obligations therefrom 
resulting, under the general term Christology. 



28 INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 

lation to the Deity in will and kind of felicity. The 
titles given to this part of the science have been 
various. Some have called it Morality, some Reli- 
gion; but as unfortunately these two terms have 
been set up as rivals to each other, neither conveys 
the exact meaning to men's minds which I would 
wish. It would be easy to coin another Greek com- 
pound, and Agathology would not ill express that 
part of the science which relates to the nature of 
this " summum bonum" and the means of attaining 
it ; but for a plain man a plain word is better, and I 
would rather head the last division as the practical 
result of the two former. In what I have to say 
further, I shall consider these divisions as applica- 
ble no less to the authoritative, than the philosophic 
system. The external evidence of the former I take 
for granted ; Christianity must have had an origin, 
and it is far less outrage to common sense to suppose 
its outset was such as its first promulgators assert, 
than to allegorize Christ and his apostles into the 
sun and the signs of the zodiac, or anything else as 
strange and as improbable. The existence of Chris- 
tianity is too notorious to be denied ; and if, as a 
system, it offers all that man's best reason has been 
able to discover, if it offer as a perfect whole, com- 
prehensible to the meanest capacity, what no single 
man, however great, quite accomplished, then it is 
no imposture, it is the Truth; that truth which 
Socrates died for, and which armed Cicero's timid 
nature to meet his assassins with the courage of a 
hero. It is in vain that we attempt to reject it ; the 
man who professes to cast aside Revelation alto- 
gether, still, if he be not a vicious man, lives as a 
Christian, has a Christian's benevolence ; a Chris- 
tian's hopes ; it is in his nature ; his instincts oblige 
him to love his fellows ; his faculties compel him to 



INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES. 29 

acknowledge a First Cause ; his dearest wish is 
immortality: Christianity comes but to second the 
dictates of his better self, and to give a sanction to 
his hopes ; but with this advantage, that he whose 
mind has not been enough cultivated to reason out 
a foundation for these hopes, or to argue man's duties 
from his nature, finds plain precepts for his guidance 
which embody all and somewhat more than philo- 
sophy could have taught him: — if this system be 
not divine, at any rate had the Deity given a reve- 
lation to man, he could have given no other. 

It will be my endeavor not to show how the one 
truth which forms the centre of both the authorita- 
tive and philosophical systems will be reflected back 
from each in turn, so as to throw light upon the other ; 
and if, in so doing, I may set at rest some few of the 
angry feelings which are too apt to prevail on sub- 
jects where they are the most misplaced, if but one 
heart should learn to feel with me that where all are 
eagerly looking for the truth, that circumstance ought 
to make us rather friends than enemies, and that the 
path we take matters far less than the place we are 
going too ; — I shall have at least one cheering thought 
to go with me to my grave, brightening my path as 
all else grows darker. 



THEOLOGY. 

One of the most fruitful sources of angry discus- 
sions on this subject on the one hand, and idle 
scoffs on the other, has been the disposition so pre- 
valent among men, to a species of Anthropomor- 
phism in their notions of the Deity ; for though all 
will not go the length of the Egyptian monks who 
nearly murdered their bishop for endeavoring to 
persuade them that God had not actual hands and 
feet, — as they alleged they found written in the 
Scripture, — yet many would go nearly that length 
with him who should dare to assert that God has 
no more of the vindictive passions than of the 
bodily form of a man. Yet we must see clearly 
that one is nearly as absurd a fancy as the other, 
if we consider that a pure spiritual existence has no 
individuality but in will, and purpose, and feeling ; 
and that therefore any of those changes in mood 
which are in truth a part of the animal nature of 
man would be equivalent to a change of individuality 
in the Deity ; for a change of purpose is a change of 
person, where there is no animal nature to create or 
suffer that change. Philosophy asserts this, so 
does Christianity ; in God " is no variableness, nei- 
ther shadow of turning," yet men in all ages have 
misapprehended a few eastern hyperboles in the 
language of the Scripture, till they have made a 
Deity for themselves such as we should not select, 
even for a human friend. " I defy you to say so 
hard a thing of the devil," said John Wesley, when 
speaking of Whitfield's doctrine of Reprobation ; yet 



THEOLOGY. 31 

Wesley was not free from the prevailing anthropo- 
morphism himself. 

The very first step, then, if we would wish either 
to understand what is predicated of the Deity in 
our Scriptures, or to know how we ourselves stand 
with regard to this exterior power, whose will evi- 
dently must control us something in the same way 
that the parent controls the child, is, to ascertain 
what are the necessary conditions of eternity and 
self-existence, for it is in vain to say that the Deity 
is utterly beyond the reach of our reasoning facul- 
ties. We can conceive eternity, we can conceive 
self-existence ; every strong and cultivated mind that 
has turned its attention to these subjects knows 
this ; though it is one of those parts of individual 
consciousness which admits no other proof than 
the feeling that we can. We can conceive, — that 
is, though unable to comprehend, (using the word 
in its sense of the entire grasping of a subject,) we 
can apprehend, or reach to and lay hold on, the 
great features of the case : — we can arrive in thought 
at an approximation to the nature of an immaterial 
existence, though we cannot fathom all its depths ; 
and that we can do so is perhaps one of the strong- 
est, though least conspicuous proofs that we have 
a sort of imperfect specimen within us of what im- 
material existence is ; for experience shows that 
man is unable to conceive what he has no exemplar 
of. The wildest imagination, while endeavoring to 
form a monster, has never done more than take dis- 
jointed parts of known things, and put them toge- 
ther. The essence of eternity and of self-existence 
is, that it is boundless, for, as I have already ob- 
served, if we suppose any other like power, we 
must either suppose a difference, or an agreement 
of individual will and purpose ; if a difference, then 



32 THEOLOGY. 

there must be discord and destruction : if agreement, 
then, as there are no bodily parts to prevent entire 
union, there is an amalgamation, and the power is 
one ; one, in its individuality, that is, — but — as some 
ancient Christian philosophers have well observed, 
— not necessarily one in its parts or functions, since 
the individuality, the wisdom,* and the actively ex- 
erted will, are distinct principles appertaining to the 
same essence : for it is clear that the individuality 
might exist for ever without any active exertion, yet 
the power of exertion is in it, and capable of being 
manifested at any time ; and though the individual- 
ity, the wisdom, and the exerted will, are distinct 
parts or functions of the one self-existent Being, 
they are necessary consequences of each other, and 
being each perfect, can be susceptible of no change ; 
for the knowledge which directs the will being en- 
tire, the choice consequent upon it must be always 
the same; nor can there be any other essential 
part or function affirmed of the eternal self-existent 
Being than these three : all the rest must be mere 
negatives consequent on them. Thus God cannot 
be mistaken in the means to an end, or find his pur- 
pose changed by unexpected circumstances ; because 
perfect knowledge forbids both. Nor can God suf- 
fer pain or grief, because either the one or the other 
results from the action of some force, exterior and 
superior to the being so suffering ; a thing which 
perfect power equally forbids. 

Again, there can be no distinction of past or future 
with the Deity. Man measures time by the revolu- 

* The mere English reader is not aware, and even some 
scholars scarcely consider that the term Xcyog, which in the 
Gospel of St. John is translated " Word," has the meaning in 
the Greek of the " Reasoning Power," or » Wisdom in active 
operation." 



THEOLOGY. 33 

tions of the earth, and by his own waxing and wan- 
ing powers. Give him an eternal day and an unal- 
tered body, what then will be his past and future ? 
The past is what he has done and knows, the future 
what he has not yet done, and therefore does not 
know : but the Deity knows all, where then is his 
distinction of time ? To him it is one unbounded 
present, and all the events of the world, no less than 
its component parts, lie spread before him as in a 
map ; save that our map only represents material 
objects, whereas it is the mind of man which the 
Deity looks through, — sees the motives which ope- 
rate there, and bends the events of nature so far to 
control the actions resulting from them, as to make 
even evil intentions conducive to some good end. It 
is an earthly and a human notion which figures to 
itself the Deity arranging the affairs of the world by 
patching here, and mending there, as if any event 
could take the Creator by surprise. And here 
arises the question which has been repeated through 
all ages, " Why, then, is there evil? Why is there 
suffering in the world?" for if an all-powerful Deity 
sees and permits, it is equivalent to the causing it. 
Even in human law, the man who stands by and 
sees a murder committed, without endeavoring to 
prevent it, is held a party to the crime. 

The answer to this is to be found in the nature of 
the beings in question. There is one thing which 
even to the Deity is impossible. The self-existent 
cannot make another self-existent, and what is not 
self-existent is bounded ; for there is an antecedent 
and a greater power : and what is bounded is imper- 
fect ; for there is something which it does not know, 
and therefore it can commit errors. Now expe- 
rience shows us that there is no happiness but in 
voluntary action : minerals have chemical affinities 



34 THEOLOGY. 

and combine necessarily, but there is no sensation 
of pleasure ; the heart performs its functions involun- 
tarily, and there is no sensation of pleasure in their 
performance ; the goods of life as they are called, 
such as health, riches, &c, when in quiet posses- 
sion, give no pleasure further than they afford the 
means of seeking it, which is voluntary action. To 
make a being capable of a high degree of hap- 
piness then, he must have a free and intelligent 
will; and thus he is akin to the Deity, and capa- 
ble of tasting the same felicity. This necessarily 
imperfect being, therefore, has a complete free- 
dom of choice, consequently the power of erring in 
his choice ; what then would be the course pursued 
by unbounded benevolence to preserve him from 
error? Would it not hedge him round with diffi- 
culties at every step towards that wrong path ; with 
inward discomfort, pain, and a long train of evil 
consequences to prevent him from pursuing it ? 
Would it not school him, as a parent does his child, 
by allowing him to suffer from his thoughtlessness 
to make him wiser in future ? An imperfect being 
might not know how to prize or to enjoy the Divine 
felicity, till taught its worth by having tried in other 
directions and found himself wrong. Is there then 
actual evil in the world if we except that of the per- 
verse will of man ? I think a short consideration 
will show that there is not. I think that there is no 
man who has attained middle age, who will not ac- 
knowledge that in the irremediable events of his life 
there has always been either a grief avoided, or a 
good to be gained, if he chose to lay hold on it. A 
friend, the beloved above all others, dies perhaps ; 
is it long before we can see cause to thank heaven 
that he is safe from the evil which he would other- 
wise have had to endure from evil men ? His death 



THEOLOGY. 35 

has changed all our views and aims ;— do we not 
find that in this change of views and aims we have 
gained more than an equivalent for what we have, 
after all, lost but for a time ? We have gained pro- 
bably a farther power of doing good ; have formed 
fresh connections over whom we may exercise a 
beneficial influence ; are becoming more capable of 
intellectual happiness ourselves, and of leading others 
to enjoy it ; more assimilated to God, and more fitted 
for a joyful reunion with those whom He has taken 
to Himself. If our conclusion as to the real nature 
of man be just, (and I know not how we are to 
avoid acknowledging it to be so), then what passes 
in the short span of bodily existence is but one part 
of a great whole ; and in passing through that state 
which is the school of our intellectual nature, enjoy- 
ing pleasure while pursuing the right course, and 
suffering pain when following the wrong one, we 
are only undergoing a necessary preparation for a 
higher degree of happiness ; after which, having 
gained the experience necessary to enable us to 
choose aright, we may find in the bosom of the 
Divinity and in the society of others perfected like 
ourselves, the entire felicity which we have sighed 
for. 

Thus far philosophy speaks. Christianity goes 
further, though in the same tone. Christianity says, 
" Man's path, even though thus fenced, may be mis- 
taken," and it proceeds to offer a set of precepts 
which make that path still plainer; it offers more 
yet, it sets before him an exemplar of human virtue, 
made perfect by the indwelling of the Deity, and by 
showing how lovely such a life might be, even with 
no circumstance of worldly grandeur or pleasure to 
recommend it, has brought every feeling of man's 
heart into accordance with his true interests. " Never 



36 THEOLOGY. 

man spake like this man," " All were astonished at 
the gracious words which proceeded out of his 
mouth," &c, &c, sufficiently shows how that bright 
pattern of excellence laid hold on the minds of the 
most indifferent. 

Nor is this all : we have already seen that the 
qualities of the Divine nature may be argued out by 
a sound philosophy. Man finds himself in a certain 
degree a partaker of that nature, therefore, by the 
necessary law of all existence, his happiness must 
be of the same kind ; and to seek any other would 
be but the insanity of a man who should plunge into 
the arctic seas to follow the whale. If, then, con- 
vinced of this truth, he schools his mind to wish 
what the Deity wills; to seek, in short, the same 
felicity, he will no longer have to complain of his 
finite nature ; for Infinite Power is already accom- 
plishing his wish, almost before he has known how 
to shape it. He has no dread that the attainment of 
his object will be defeated ; for he knows that if the 
scheme he has devised prove vain, it is only because 
it was not in reality calculated to promote the end 
he had in view, and his inmost heart thus becomes 
a spring of never-failing content and satisfaction, a 
well of living water, freshening and beautifying all 
around as well as all within. 

None who have not tried, are aware of the large 
influence which a soul thus constituted has, even 
upon the bodily health, though physicians have not 
unfrequently observed that a quiet and happy mind 
is the best medicine in illness. Sickness is one of 
those evils which are thought the immediate inflic- 
tion of the Deity, though were the matter better con- 
sidered, it would appear that it is most generally of 
man's making; but even when thus produced, it 
may become a blessing instead of a misfortune, by 



THEOLOGY. 37 

steadily pursuing the same course. If in health, we 
can imitate the perfections and seek the felicity of 
the Deity, by diffusing happiness around us, and 
enjoying the contemplation of it; in sickness we 
may seek the knowledge which forms another part 
of His attributes. It is a false notion that applica- 
tion of the mind to science is impossible or hurtful, 
in such a state; on the contrary, it takes off the 
tedium of confinement, withdraws the attention from 
pain, and makes what would otherwise be weari- 
some, a source of enjoyment; for those who have 
active duties to fulfill, often have scanty leisure for 
acquiring what nevertheless they sigh for. In the 
quiet of a sick chamber knowledge may be sought 
and yet no duty neglected ; and with convalescence 
comes the additional pleasure of feeling that we go 
forth to our duties with a mind strengthened by its 
high contemplations, and with increased powers of 
usefulness from the acquisition of knowledge. This 
is no imaginary picture ; if the philosophy which 
the writer now presents to those who, like him, need 
it for practical use, be worth anything, let him who 
profits by it remember that it was so acquired. It 
was during months of illness that he stole time to 
hold intercourse with the master-minds of antiquity ; 
and often has he hailed, almost with delight, the 
respite thus afforded him from worldly toil. If then, 
to an individual deeply involved in all the perplexi- 
ties caused by man's perverse will, the mere school- 
ing his wishes to the Divine similitude be productive 
of so much peace and happiness, what would be 
the consequence if a whole community were under 
the same influence? The question of "why evil 
is in the world?" would not then be asked; for 
there would be none. Health would not be worn 
out by extreme labor ; for who that loved his neigh- 



38 THEOLOGY. 

bor would require or allow it ? Hearts would not 
be broken by unkindness ; for the follower of such 
a system "loves his brother." Disease would not 
be brought on by excess, or transmitted in the blood 
to an unfortunate progeny ; for men would no longer 
debase themselves by sensuality. Science would 
meet and control the dangers arising from natural 
causes ; and death itself would be but a pleasant 
journey to a happier land, where friends and kindred 
were awaiting us. Again I repeat that the mass of 
suffering which man sternly mounts upon to arraign 
the Deity, is heaped up by himself only, and might 
be swept away again by the same hands that placed 
it there. Three generations of a wise and virtuous 
race would nearly efface the mischiefs of all the ages 
of sin and sorrow which had preceded them. There 
is nothing in all this, probably, that has not been 
said before, and perhaps better said; but unfortu- 
nately, the necessity of using words as the medium 
of thought frequently leads us to forget that they are 
only the medium and not the ideas themselves. 
Thus we find it daily repeated, that God is eternal, 
self-existent, almighty; and when these words are 
uttered it is thought sufficient. Among those who 
utter them, who is there who has accurately weighed 
the necessary conditions of such an existence ? The 
most contradictory propositions are brought forward 
and insisted on, and none perceive the contradiction 
unless the very word should bear it upon its face. 
Thus, he who should assert that God is wise and 
ignorant, powerful and weak, at the same time, 
might be doubted ; but he who asserts such changes 
of purpose in the Deity as we find resulting from 
the want of power or of knowledge in man, gains 
credit, because it is not perceived that omnipotence 
and omniscience leave no room for any such change, 



THEOLOGY. 39 

and that eternity and self-existence entirely forbid 
the possibility of it: this is but one of the many 
propositions of this kind which daily pass current 
in the world. If, therefore, an accurate notion of 
the nature of the ruling power on whom we depend 
be requisite to the understanding our position, and 
regulating our actions, it is of no small importance 
to awaken men's minds to the logical consequences 
# of their admitted creed. Indeed, were this course 
generally followed, there would be an end of the 
dissensions which now disgrace the Christian world ; 
for a really false opinion would soon manifest itself 
to the mind of the inquirer by the absurdity of its 
consequences, and all other differences, — which arise 
merely from taking words for ideas and then imagin- 
ing that our neighbor means differently, because he 
uses a different word, — would merge in the one truth 
which all love, and either seek, or think they have 
attained. I believe that if each of the words which 
have in turn been made the " Shibboleth" of a party, 
had been subjected to such a process, we might now 
be living in peace, "one fold, under one shepherd." 
Sure I am, that as the the Truth can be but one, 
there must be a fault in the course pursued, or those 
who have honestly sought it could not have remained, 
as, — alas for Christian charity ! — many wise, and 
otherwise good men have remained, — in bitter oppo- 
sition to each other. 

" The man is other and better than his belief," 
says Coleridge ; so deep a thinker ought to have 
gone further, and told us why it is so ; for the maxim 
is a true one. Is it not that the conviction of the 
heart, from which his actions flow, finds imperfect 
expression in words, and that even those words fail 
to convey to others the meaning he has intended to 
give them ? His words are attacked, and he defends 



40 THEOLOGY. 

them as the visible signs of what he thinks and feels; 
but are they so ? Let any man try to express his own 
interior conviction in accurate terms, and see how 
many deep feelings of unseen realities, how many 
humble prostrations of human weakness before Di- 
vine perfection, are unsusceptible of any expression 
at all ; and when he begins to attempt a definition, 
how his very soul groans over the unsuited tools he 
has to use ; and when he has felt all this, let him, if 
he can, condemn his neighbor's creed, when he 
sees his neighbor's life, and reads in that what he 
must have intended to express. 

We have now seen what are the necessary condi- 
tions of self-existence. Will either Unitarians or 
Trinitarians dissent from this ? Athanasius, the most 
decided of Trinitarians, expressed himself in nearly 
the same terms that I have used. Priestly could 
hardly have wished for any other definition. Why 
then have they been considered of different sects ? 
Because each has attacked or defended words ; and 
the things which those words were intended to con- 
vey a notion of, have not been duly considered ; and 
then, when controversy once begins, and passion 
enters where placid reasoning alone should find place, 
adieu to the hope of brotherly fellowship ! Evil feel- 
ings are engendered ; the church of Christ is split ; 
and he who endeavors to make peace by showing 
each party that in the heat of dispute both have gone 
too far, is looked upon as lukewarm in the cause, or 
perhaps as a traitor to that very faith which he is 
endeavoring to preserve "in the bond of unity." 

The tradition of the church tells us that when the 
apostle John, sinking under the pressure of years and 
infirmity, could no longer preach to his converts, he 
was wont to be carried in a chair into the midst of 
them, where he pronounced simply these words, 



THEOLOGY. 41 

" Children, love one another." If this was the last 
lesson of the disciple " whom Jesus loved," of one 
who had heard the gracious words of Him who 
" spake as never man spake," surely we shall do 
well to remember that " brotherly love" is orthodoxy, 
and that charitable indulgence, not unmeasured zeal, 
is " the fulfilling of the law." 



PSYCHOLOGY. 

If Theology has been embarrassed by inadequate 
conceptions of the nature of the Self-Existent, Psy- 
chology has suffered no less from confined notions 
of the nature of man. Though it has been very 
generally believed that this nature is compound, and 
though the words "soul" and "body" are in every 
one's mouth, yet we find no distinct ideas respect- 
ing the functions of each, even among those who 
are the most decided in their assertion that such are 
the component parts of man. We find no great 
laws established by experimental proof, as in other 
sciences ; no accurate classification ; and he who, 
without a previously formed theory of his own to 
guide him through the labyrinth, should take up 
any of the works professedly written to explain 
the subject, would very probably find himself more 
bewildered when he had finished than when he 
began. 

When a science is in this state of chaotic dis- 
order, there is no chance of progress ; the very 
first step towards its advancement, therefore, must 
be a classification which may at least reduce the 
subjects it embraces to something like arrangement. 
It may be imperfect, it may even be erroneous ; 
but at any rate, the objects requiring attention will 
have been disentangled from each other, and so 
placed that they may be viewed separately, and ex- 
amined on all sides ; it is easy then to shift their 
position if, after such examination, it should appear 
necessary. 



PSYCHOLOGY. 43 

But the very thing which makes classification 
needful makes it also difficult. Whoever may at- 
tempt it will be met by his cotemporaries with the 
taunt, " What new sense has been given to you, that 
you imagine yourself able to do what abler minds 
have not accomplished ?" Those who think that 
the adytum of the temple ought to be dark, or 
lighted only by the torch of the mystagogue for the 
entrance of the initiated, will denounce the endea- 
vor to admit daylight as a sacrilege. What have 
the people to do in such matters ? and what can a 
Pariah know of them 1 All this and more must 
be expected, but it alters not the case ; a first 
step must be made, or a second never can be : and 
if the people, the multitude, the oc- 7toXkoi (I care 
not by what term of contempt I and my com- 
peers may be denominated), if the masses, I say, 
are to be what God made them to be, something 
more must be done than to tell them that they 
have instinctive feelings given them by a benevolent 
Deity, which it is a sin to indulge ; for which rea- 
son severe laws abridge their gratification as far 
as possible : and that they have a soul destined 
for an immortality of spiritual enjoyment which 
they have no means given them of preparing for. 
Something more than this, I repeat, is needful to 
make us fit denizens of heaven : we must know 
how much of what we now feel is to go with us be- 
yond the grave, how far it is to be controlled; how 
far indulged. We must, in short, ascertain the 
boundary line between the animal and the immor- 
tal nature ; and this must be done, not for the few 
who have grown pale over their midnight studies, 
but for the many ; for those who can only snatch 
a moment from the labors of the day for a . short 
book, and whose toil has made them sleep too 



44 PSYCHOLOGY. 

soundly at night to allow of long speculations. The 
philosophy of the multitude must be as brief as it is 
practical. 

We began with a slight classification of the phe- 
nomena of man's nature into 

1. The instinctive emotions and appetites. 

2. The faculties. 

3. The will. 

And I assumed that as the first two partook of the 
changes which the body undergoes, they were bodily; 
but that as the individual and intelligent will partakes 
of none of these changes, it was of a different nature. 
Had we never heard of soul and body, so marked a 
distinction in phenomena would have led us to look 
for a double principle to cause it ; and I therefore 
propose to reduce man's nature to its ultimate ele- 
ments, by arranging the whole under two simple 
divisions. 

I. Material and animal functions subjected to 
bodily change, and subdivided into 

1. Appetites. 

2. Instinctive emotions. 

3. Faculties. 

II. Spiritual and unchanging functions. 

The latter division only, is, strictly speaking, 
the province of Psychology : but in a nature so 
intimately blended, the one part so influences the 
other, that a system which should leave out either 
would be very imperfect. I therefore proceed to 
consider, 

I. Material and animal functions subjected to 
bodily change. 

1. I need not waste time in proving that appetites, 
such as hunger and the like, are a part of our bodily 
and animal nature. No one denies it; and whoever 
should doubt it might soon be convinced by trying 



PSYCHOLOGY. 45 

the experiment of preventing their gratification. 
Man would perish from the earth under such a re- 
gimen. 

2. There has been more doubt as to what I here 
call the instinctive emotions : anger, fear, and many- 
other emotions of this kind, have generally been 
termed passions, and referred to the soul for their 
origin ; but when it is considered that they arise 
involuntarily in the first instance, and are attended 
with such a change in the circulation, and other 
bodily functions, as to disorder the health, and even 
in some instances to cause instant death, and when, 
moreover, it is considered that these so called pas- 
sions are requisite to the preservation and well-being 
of the species, — for anger impels us to self-defence, 
fear to the avoidance of danger, &c, — we shall be 
justified, I think, in giving them the appellation I 
have done ; since, though passion, if we take it in 
the strict sense, means only a thing suffered pas- 
sively ; yet in common parlance it has been strangely- 
confounded in its meaning, and is not unfrequently 
so used as to signify a thing done actively. Of 
course from this class of instinctive emotions must 
be rejected, some of the feelings hitherto classed 
among passions, such as Hope, which is attended 
with no bodily disorder, and has therefore no claim 
to the title of passion, or a thing suffered. It will not 
be necessary to specify every one of the emotions 
thus to be classed ; it is so easy to examine whether 
any bodily disorder is ever occasioned by it, or not, 
that none can be at a loss in determining the ques- 
tion. 

3. The faculties have been variously considered 
by different writers : but as a recapitulation of their 
opinions would take much space, those who wish to 
know what they are, must consult their works. 



46 PSYCHOLOGY. 

Pursuing the inquiry on the same ground that I have 
taken with respect to the instinctive emotions, I find 
clear indications of bodily origin, in the fatigue 
occasioned to the brain by their exercise, the neces- 
sity for repose ere they can again be set to work, 
their complete derangement by bodily disease, their 
debility in the last decrepitude of age. We need 
hardly ask the physiologist for his assistance here ; 
common observation suffices for this conclusion. 
And here we may notice, that as the instinctive emo- 
tions are requisite for the preservation of the animal, 
so also are the faculties in a certain degree ; for 
though the combinations effected in the brain may 
be applied to other purposes, which I shall presently 
speak of, yet the first and most obvious use is in the 
ministering to bodily needs ; — contrivances for de- 
fence, for shelter, for procuring food, are the result 
of such combinations ; and unarmed with natural 
covering or natural weapons as man is, it is evident 
that without these contrivances the species would 
soon perish. Thus far therefore we have a mere 
animal, with the properties and capacities requisite 
for his preservation. 

II. Spiritual or unchanging functions. 

These appear to be two: i. e., the intelligent will, 
and that species of memory which forms the con- 
sciousness of identity; and which, — however ordi- 
nary recollections may be impaired by the injury- or 
disease of the brain, — never suffers any change 
from infancy to death, and even in sleep remains 
unaltered. 

We have as yet considered man as an animal only, 
and have seen all parts of his frame acting harmo- 
niously together ; the appetites, and the involuntary 
or instinctive emotions by turns stimulating the facul- 
ties to provide for the needs of the body, these facul- 



PSYCHOLOGY. 47 

ties being operations of the brain, and therefore 
coming within reach of the mechanical action of the 
system. But another power now enters upon the 
scene, and, for good or for evil, not unfrequently 
thwarts and disorders the whole. The instinctive 
emotions, which in themselves are evanescent, are 
wrought up by this untiring energy into permanent 
affections . The faculties which naturally only act 
under the stimulus of bodily wants, — that is to say, 
under the impulses mechanically conveyed to the 
brain, — are now seized upon by this restless inquisi- 
tive power, and compelled, in spite of fatigue, and 
even utter derangement of health in consequence, to 
minister to its requisitions, and supply it with the 
information it wants ; untired, unchanging, it drags 
on its weary slave with immitigable determination, 
till at last it scornfully casts it into the grave as no 
longer fit for its purpose, and asks for other worlds, 
and ages yet to come, to satisfy its impatient long- 
ings for wisdom or for enjoyment. But though, 
when speaking of functions, I have divided them 
into two, as manifesting themselves differently ; it is 
clear that they proceed from one principle ; it is the 
conscious individual essence which pours itself forth 
in this energetic and unwearied activity, and is able, 
when it knows its powers, to appropriate to its own 
purposes the whole of the unrivaled machinery 
placed within its reach. 

But though this nice mechanism be capable of 
responding to the touch of that power within, which 
makes man so godlike when his nature has its full 
play ; it is too frequently left at the mercy of out- 
ward impressions, and remains the mere animal to 
the last : for we have already seen that the exertion 
of the intelligent will over the bodily functions is not 
requisite to their performance so as to preserve life* 



48 PSYCHOLOGY. 

Man may exist as an animal, or at least very little 
removed from that state, and when the brain has 
never been exercised in those nicer operations which 
the individual essence can at its choice require from 
it, it becomes as unfit for use as the hands of a 
Hindoo devotee when he has resolutely kept them 
shut for ten years together. Active use is the neces- 
sary condition for keeping any bodily fibre in a 
healthy and serviceable state ; and we see that this 
active use is stimulated by the sensations from with- 
out, which at our first entrance into the world are 
so abundant in all directions. The first impulse of 
the child is a restless curiosity, and at the same 
time an endeavor to combine and arrange ideas from 
what he sees and hears. Sensation has done its 
work; the brain has perceived; the individual is 
beginning to discover the organ he has at his com- 
mand, and he is already directing it to the inquiries 
needful for his information ; but too frequently the 
child has no one who can reply to his inquiries ; he 
gets weary of useless question, or is reproved for it ; 
the brain consequently becomes inactive as to all its 
higher functions, and no farther progress is made. 
The will is either not exerted at all, — for the mere 
action of nerves of voluntary motion stimulated by 
sensation must not be confounded with the ruling 
individual will, — or if it be exerted, having no longer 
power over the faculties so as to acquire useful in- 
formation, its whole energy is devoted to the giving 
force and permanence to the instinctive emotions, 
which being involuntary, never can slumber as the 
faculties are wont to do. The man becomes thus 
the creature of passion, and that immaterial essence 
which should have been the guide to all that is ex- 
cellent and noble in knowledge and in feeling, pan- 
ders only to the impulses of the body, and degrades 



PSYCHOLOGY. 49 

itself from its high dignity merely to sink both below 
the level of the brute ; for the brute, when the appe- 
tite is satisfied, goes no farther; but bring the intel- 
ligent will once to aid, and the jaded appetite is 
pampered and stimulated ; fresh excitement is sought, 
and the body is at last worn out by the endeavors 
of its unwearied ally to minister to its gratification. 

In cases of idiocy it is evident that the brain 
never has attained a sufficient power for supplying 
the individual will with the information it needs; 
but the proverbial obstinacy of idiotic persons shows 
that this power is as strong in them as in others ; 
and were a careful training given to such children, 
it would be found that they are capable of much 
more than is supposed.* I knew a family in hum- 
ble life, some years ago, where three of the children 
were thus afflicted; two of them were trained as 
persons in that rank usually are, to labor, and 
attend the church on Sunday. The third, and 
youngest, was the mother's darling, and nothing was 
required of him. The first two remained weak in 
intellect, but capable of performing many manual 
labors ; were honest and industrious in their way, 
and were conscientious in the discharge of their 
humble duties. The third was the reckless, spiteful 
idiot too often seen. 

Again, in insanity we find a no less resolute will; 
but misled by the false report of the brain, it is de- 
voted to useless or mischievous purposes ; and here 
too it is probable, that were the office of the brain, 
of the instinctive emotions, and of the ruling will, 
duly distinguished, this most miserable of all calami- 
ties might be either wholly averted, or greatly miti- 
gated. Its origin is either in a diseased state of the 

* See " Small Books," &c., No. 3, § 14. 



50 PSYCHOLOGY. 

brain, from injury, or the violent action of some 
instinctive emotion, or a devotion of the cerebral 
power to one subject exclusively of all others, till it 
has no longer the power to apply to any but that. 
Now were the ruling will in the habit of claiming 
that supremacy which it can claim, it seems proba- 
ble that in every one of these instances it might, if 
not prevent the evil wholly, — as it probably would 
in the two latter, — yet greatly mitigate it. Else how 
is it that we find in cases of confirmed insanity the 
fear of pain will curb the fit? Here the will is ex- 
cited to use its power to avoid an evil, and for the 
time it uses it successfully. 

Few know or believe the immense power which 
this undying energy is capable of exercising over the 
body, for it is only now and then that it is seen in 
full action ; but that it is both master of, and widely 
different from the animal nature, may be sufficiently 
shown from those instances. For example, when a 
man resolves on putting an end to his existence by 
abstaining from food, — and this has been done, — the 
tyrannical sway exercised over every sensation and 
craving of the body, is complete and durable, as well 
as in entire contradiction to every impulse of the 
animal nature. Or if it be said that this has been 
merely the last resort of a man wearied out with 
suffering, let us take the case of one hazarding or 
throwing away his own life to save another from 
perishing. A stranger it may be, one from whom 
he has nothing to expect, and where he has no in- 
citement but the intimate conviction that a higher 
and a nobler nature claims the sacrifice of the mere 
animal. He knows that he is rushing upon death, 
he feels, probably, some natural shudder in doing 
so ; yet this is overruled, and he goes on with his 
resolute purpose. Take away the influence of such 



PSYCHOLOGY. 51 

a principle within, and half the actions of men are 
utterly unaccountable ; for it is the natural tendency 
of all things to accomplish the end of their being ; 
and if it be sentient, to be happy in doing so. The 
plant blossoms and bears fruit before it decays, and 
its life may be prolonged by preventing it from blos- 
soming. The mere animal eats, drinks, propagates 
its species, and is satisfied ; but man is always aim- 
ing at objects to which his life is frequently sacri- 
ficed, and no one calls him insane. On the contrary, 
in the proportion that he is ready with this sacrifice, he 
is honored and esteemed ; because every one has an 
interior consciousness that it is what his own nature 
aspires to. He feels that he is now but the larva of 
himself, and that he has a higher career opening be- 
fore him, where all that was beginning to develop 
itself will acquire perfection, where all the gentler 
sympathies of our nature may still find place and 
scope, and from whence the grosser animal gratifica- 
tions alone will be banished, along with the earthly 
frame which required them. 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

" What is a Religion ?" and " what is a system 
of Philosophy ?" They are two different answers 
to the questions most interesting to man. Examine 
all the religions which have long held sway over the 
minds of men, all the philosophical systems which 
have united under their banner a large portion of 
the enlightened part of mankind, and you will find 
that these religions and their systems have one dis- 
tinction common to both ; that they have boldly pro- 
posed and solved the whole of those problems. It 
is by this character that we recognize a really great 
system, and we may truly say that if one of these 
questions has been pretermitted, it is but half a reli- 
gion or half a system of philosophy. Would you 
have an example of the stretch and extent of a 
great religion, look at Christianity ! Ask a Chris- 
tian "whence the human race is derived?" He 
can tell you. — " What is man's object, and what his 
destiny?" He can tell you. Ask a poor child 
from school, " why he is here, and what will be- 
come of him after death?" He will make you an 
answer full of sublime truths, which probably he 
may not half understand, but which are not, there- 
fore, the less admirable. Ask him, " How the world 
was created, and why ?" " How the earth has been 
peopled ? why men suffer, and how all this will 
end?" He can tell. He knows the duties of man 
towards God and towards his fellow-men, and when 
he is older, and has learned the system more com- 
pletely, he will not hesitate at all more respecting 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 53 

natural, political, and national rights ; for each of 
these parts of knowledge flows as naturally from 
Christianity as light from the sun. Such is what I 
call a great system. 

These are the words of a French philosopher who 
himself was not a Christian,* but I can find no 
words which would more aptly trace the way in 
which a "great system" must influence all the rela- 
tions of life ; and most truly does he pronounce that 
to be but a half doctrine which is incapable of this 
extended rule over men's minds and actions. When, 
therefore, I come to the practical result of a scheme 
of philosophy which walks hand in hand with the 
"great system" which M. JoufTroy has so well de- 
scribed, it will not be astonishing if I find myself 
obliged to touch on many points where great differ- 
ences of opinion have existed. To those who may 
not take the same view of the subject, I can only 
say with Themistocles, " Strike, if you please, but 
hear me." Weigh at least, whether there be not 
some truth that deserves your farther attention in the 
propositions which at first may seem strange, and 
perhaps displeasing. 

We have already considered the exterior and in- 
terior power in their separate nature and functions : 
we now come to the mutual relations which must 
subsist between them, and the influence these have 
on man's position, prospects, and finally destiny. 
We have seen man endued with instincts and facul- 



* Perhaps I ought rather to say, that disgusted with the nar- 
row views of contending sects, he was unable to find any one to 
which he could associate himself, and thus, unphilosophic only 
in this, overlooked his own proposition, that great systems, whe- 
ther of philosophy or religion, are only two modes of solving the 
same question, not two solutions; and that, therefore, he who 
professes a pure and true philosophy is a Christian, whether he 
knows it or not. 



54 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

ties purely corporeal in their origin and mode of ex- 
ercise ; and yet, in the midst of these corporeal in- 
stincts and faculties, we find another power introduced 
of a different nature, capable of diverting them from 
their natural course, and exercising an almost illimit- 
able sway over them ; like the musical instruments 
which by their regular machinery can produce a set 
number of tunes, but yet have keys annexed, by 
which a skillful player can produce harmony at his 
will : and this complex nature of man is the work of 
a Being who, having all power and all knowledge, 
must do what is best for the proposed end. 

If we look through creation in every instance 
where we have an opportunity of watching the ope- 
rations of nature, as writers on such subjects are 
wont to say, or as I should say, of the Framer of 
nature, we find no substance formed with particular 
properties for an especial occasion, which proper- 
ties never come into use afterwards. Every che- 
mist knows that each substance has its peculiar 
qualities and laws which avail equally be it free or 
in combination, be it part of an organized or an un- 
organized body ; and that amid all the mutations 
which are continually going on, nothing is wasted, 
nothing so far changed in nature that it cannot be 
resolved again into its component parts, which by 
the same unchanging laws form fresh combinations, 
each nevertheless still retaining the fundamental 
character impressed upon it. We see too that all 
organized things, — I am not speaking now of man, 
— have exactly those qualities, organs, and impulses 
given them, which conduce to the end of their being ; 
which end they scarcely ever fail to accomplish : the 
plant, the insect, the animal have their different modes 
of life and production ; but they live and produce ; 
no property inherent in them interferes to prevent 
this. We further see that when we have established 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 55 

any great law of creation by reasonable induction, 
we can explain hitherto puzzling phenomena by a 
reference to these laws. 

Upon these last grounds, then, I assume that man's 
instincts and faculties are given him for purposes of 
permanent utility extending beyond this life : because 
it is evident that he has a property inherent in him, 
which interferes with, and very frequently wholly 
prevents, the full development of his animal nature ; 
and therefore that animal nature, and the period of 
its duration, is not all of man. And if any one ob- 
jects that man is in a fallen state, and therefore that 
these instincts and faculties are corrupt, and that we 
are not to look for good but for evil from them, I 
reply, that those who make this objection doubtless 
will allow that when man came from the hands of 
his Maker, his nature, as well as all the rest of the 
new world, was " very good." Now we have already 
seen that these instincts and faculties are corporeal ; 
provided for by a very simple and complete mechan- 
ism, but still by mechanism, as much as the bending 
of the joints or the growth of the body ; then these 
instincts and faculties were in man originally such as 
they now are, excepting in instances where they are 
impaired by disease, and are no more corrupt than 
his bones or his muscles ; and it is only when the 
individual power interferes to give intensity and 
duration to these animal functions, that they run into 
excess, and thus become an evil, from the due balance 
between them being overthrown. It is no small 
happiness to the world that those kindly feelings 
which bind man to man, are all found among the 
instinctive emotions, which being consequent on the 
very frame of man, and altogether involuntary in the 
first instance, are therefore in no danger of being ever 
wholly stifled ; while the sterner part of his nature 



56 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

which we have called the faculties, result from cere- 
bral combinations produced by a voluntary act, and 
therefore subsequent to the first impulse of sensation. 
Let us now see how the individual is likely to be 
affected by this corporeal mechanism. He enters 
the world inexperienced and full of wonder at the 
scenes around him, and the first sensation that is 
awakened after that of mere appetite, is, love to the 
parent who cherishes him; the next, grief at the 
sight of an angry or a sad countenance. It is only 
gradually that the brain acquires power for its higher 
exercises, and long ere this has taken place, the feel- 
ings have taught the individual better than the most 
luminous argument could have done, that it is good 
to love those who are kind to us, and to avoid ex- 
citing their anger or their grief; and this is become 
so habitual, that a deviation from the usual course of 
feeling is painful in the first instance. Here then, 
the very first of instinctive emotions, provide a never- 
failing source of happy intercourse ; and there is so 
much pleasure in yielding to them, that nothing 
further is requisite than a curbing power. The 
individual readily abandons himself to the gentle 
influence ; but he may follow it too far. A parent or 
a companion may ask a wrong compliance : it is 
then that the intelligent will may call in the aid of 
the faculties to combine arguments, and weigh con- 
sequences ; and, sitting like a sovereign at his council 
board, finally resolve, that the petitioning feeling 
ought not to be attended to. How soon the brain 
shall be capable of thus giving counsel, depends on 
the wholesome exercise it has had; for where no 
stores of knowledge have been laid up, arguments 
cannot be found ; and where the habit has not been 
acquired by daily use, combinations of ideas are 
formed with difficulty. It would seem that mere 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 57 

sensation had found itself the straightest road, and 
that the more complex convolutions in which, ac- 
cording to some, memory and the higher reasoning 
faculties are exercised, were so unaccustomed to be 
called into use, that the parts were grown stiff and 
inactive ; nay, as we see that size and strength of 
limb is only gained by exercise, it is not impossible 
that a brain never called into use, may not even have 
its full proportions ; and thus, from neglect in child- 
hood, a physical incapacity may be engendered. 
Suppose this the case, and that either from want of 
exercise or of power, the faculties in their higher 
uses are not duly developed, it follows that the indi- 
vidual will, having no guide but the emotions, will 
follow them blindly, they themselves being but a 
blind impulse ; and when " the blind lead the blind, 
both fall into the ditch." But this is no corruption 
of nature, all these functions are useful and good in 
themselves, it is merely a neglect of one part which 
throws the rest off their balance. 

Let us now suppose that the faculties having been 
cultivated to the utmost, the will has listened to them 
almost exclusively : a harsh character will be en- 
gendered ; for no human being is perfect, and if we 
bestow our regard only in the ratio of specific merit, 
we shall seldom find enough excellence meet our 
notice to justify any large share of it. It is then that 
a yet more powerful instinct steps in : love between 
the sexes teaches at once the generous self-devotion 
which the combinations of rational argument might 
have been long in inculcating, and perhaps have 
attempted ineffectually ; and all the gentler social 
relations arise out of it to sweeten life, and give a 
yet higher scope to our wishes ; for who that truly 
loves will be satisfied that the union shall be broken 
at the gates of the grave, which has been so sweet 



58 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

an one through life ? And how often do we see that 
he who cared not if his loose companions looked 
upon his vices, has shrunk from, and perhaps quitted 
them, when he thought of the innocent child whom 
he could not bear to contaminate ! And thus we 
see two kinds of animal functions mutually balancing 
each other, uniting to school the individual will to all 
that is amiable and exalted. The instinctive emo- 
tions softening the sternness of the faculties, the 
faculties curbing the animal force of the emotions, 
and the will, impelled by the solicitations of the one, 
and guided by the information and caution of the 
other, acquiring by degrees those habits of judging 
and feeling rightly, which qualify man for the spirit- 
ual felicity of his Creator. He has learned the 
enjoyment of benevolence and the excellence of 
knowledge, and his heaven is already begun on this 
side the tomb ; and thus, though these emotions and 
these faculties may cease with the bodily mechanism 
which causes them, they have stamped their impress 
on the individual. Like metal poured from the fur- 
nace into a mould, which retains for ever the form 
so acquired, though the mould be but of earth ; the 
will has acquired the character it will carry with it 
into eternity, though the mould in which it was cast 
be returned to its dust. 

Can the Christian who holds philosophy to be 
" foolishness," deny that these warm though instinct- 
ive emotions, these aspiring faculties, are in exact 
conformity with the rule he acknowledges ? The 
God who made man was not so limited in power or 
knowledge, or so wanting in benevolence, as to have 
given him properties unfitted for the fulfilment of 
his high destiny. The Saviour himself has pro- 
nounced that a man shall leave all else to " cleave 
to his wife." He has given as the badge of his 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 59 

followers, that they should "love one another;"— 
as the rule of our life, that we should strive to be 
"perfect, as our Father in heaven is perfect." We 
look into our hearts, and we find that we are na- 
turally led to love the woman of our choice, beyond 
all other things ; that we cannot be happy, or even 
retain a sane mind and healthy body without social 
intercourse, and that we aspire to knowledge, to 
greatness, to immortality, to perfection in short, with 
a longing that is never satisfied in this life, yet never 
wholly subdued. Is that philosophy foolishness, 
which by rational argument deduces the truths of the 
Gospel from the very nature of things, and thus 
leaves no room for hesitation or disbelief? 

But if this be the case — if a due balance of in- 
stincts and faculties be needful to school the Will, 
so as to fit it for the only felicity suited to its na- 
ture — what sort of training ought man to have, and 
what must be the sensations of one who feels this 
truth deeply, when he looks round on the habits 
and maxims of society, and the principles on which 
legislation is too generally founded ? " The poor 
man must learn to restrain his passions," say politi- 
cal economists ; — let them first define what passion 
means. It is convenient when an ambiguous term 
hides instead of explaining the intention ; and this 
well-sounding term means, that, because it suits 
those who have the power, to retain the soil as their 
own property, therefore the man who is debarred 
from any share of it, is to be debarred also from the 
due perfection of his nature. Those very instincts 
given to mould it to benevolence and kindness are 
to be rooted out ; or, if God be stronger than man, 
and this endeavor fail, they are to be made instru- 
ments of evil instead of good, and what would have 
been the parent of all the lovely social affections, is 



60 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

to become the mere appetite of the brute, indulged 
when the animal nature is importunate, but so in- 
dulged as to degrade and deteriorate, instead of im- 
proving the individual. 

" We must have servants and laborers, hewers of 
wood and drawers of water," say the rich and the 
luxurious ; " it is therefore idle to teach the poor 
what will only set them above their work." I only 
ask, does it so really? Where are the instances of 
the real lover of intellectual improvement, who has 
been inefficient in what he has undertaken ? But 
suppose it were as is objected, — suppose a few 
hours were lost, or a few shillings spent on intel- 
lectual pleasures — do we never see either one or 
the other wasted at the beer house ? And which 
is the better way of spending them ? But setting 
aside all this, setting aside, — what I have always 
found, — that mental cultivation strengthens our 
power for whatever we undertake ; I ask again, 
what right have you to cramp and stifle the intel- 
lectual faculties of a large portion of your fellow 
creatures, in order that you may purchase their 
bodily labor, even supposing that you could no 
otherwise secure it ? — to rob men of the best gift 
God has given them, in order that you may " fare 
sumptuously every day, and "be clothed in purple 
and fine linen." The mutes of the seraglio were 
deprived of the power of speech, that they might 
not tell the secrets of their master. Would you 
condemn as cruelty the depriving a child of one 
bodily organ, and yet justify the cramping the 
whole system of mental powers, merely that there 
may be a Pariah caste — a Helot race, — who shall 
never rise above the soil they tread on, and look up 
to their masters as to beings of another species ? 
If such were to be the enduring state of society, 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 61 

there would be some justification for those who 
might strive to overturn all existing institutions, in 
the hope that human nature would find means to 
assert its rights in the confusion. Such are not the 
lessons of the Gospel, for " there is no respect of 
person" before God, and yet probably never till 
now, and in this so called free land of England, was 
the distinction of rank made to press so heavily on 
the poor man. The slave in Greece and Rome 
was in some things better ofT. He was instructed 
that he might be serviceable ; and finished, not un- 
frequently, by being the friend and companion of 
his master as his freed man. The mistress and her 
female slave sate and span together. In the modern 
states of continental Europe even, the servant or 
the laborer enjoys a certain degree of familiarity ; 
and is in consequence more contented, though poor- 
er. The increase of riches and refinement in Eng- 
land has given the upper classes a character of their 
own ; — with a selfish exclusiveness, they wish to 
retain this distinction ; and with an instinctive feel- 
ing that intellectual strength is power, how r ever the 
maxim may have been hackneyed and ridiculed, 
they hide from their own hearts even, the uneasy 
dread of being encroached on, under the specious 
argument that for the poor man his Bible suffices. 
A blessed and cheering book it is doubtless; but 
how much richer a harvest of useful precept does it 
afford to those whose minds have been enlarged by 
further culture ; how many mistakes would be avoid- 
ed if the great principles of Philosophy were better 
studied ; how much light would be thrown on it if 
something were known of the times, the places 
where, and the people to whom its words were 
spoken. The Bible alone is not enough ; the mind 
requires relaxation : the commonest events of Eng- 



62 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

land raise curiosity respecting other lands and habits 
of life ; and the young who hear a sailor narrating 
the wonders of his voyages, or the soldier of his 
campaigns, naturally wish to know something about 
the things they hear of. Why is innocent plea- 
sure to be denied them ? We should have a more 
moral population if amusements of a higher and 
more intellectual character were placed within their 
reach. It is not enough to give them food and 
raiment merely, they feel the wish to be respected 
as men. 

Let me not be misunderstood. I call for no 
agrarian law, no equality, which if established to- 
day, must cease to-morrow, from the very difference 
of individual strength and inclination ; but I call for 
justice ; — I call upon legislators to remember what 
God remembers, *, e., " whereof we are made." I 
call upon them not to damn their immortal fellow- 
men, by curbing with all the force of stringent laws 
on the one hand, and cold neglect on the other, the 
development of a nature which God looked upon when 
he had made it, and lo, "it was very good." Inte- 
rested men have parted what ought to have been 
joined. Philosophy and Christianity have been 
severed, and both have been made to speak a lan- 
guage foreign to their purpose ; but though man for 
a time may obscure those eternal verities, it is but 
like the smoke which hides the sun ; the light must 
break forth again ; and let us thank God that it must. 

It may be asked what I would substitute for the 
order of things I complain of? This is the ready 
way of getting rid of disagreeable representations, 
yet I will not shrink from this either; but the sub- 
ject is large enough to require to be treated sepa- 
rately, and my business here is with the estab- 
lishment of great principles ; these once established, 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 63 

details spring naturally from them. I return there- 
fore for the present to man and his nature, position, 
prospects, and final destiny. 

I have assumed, upon what I think sufficient 
ground, that all the phenomena of our nature are to 
be referred to animal appetite, instinctive emotions, 
faculties, and intelligent will, coupled with that 
memory which constitutes the perception of identity ; 
and I have assumed farther, that the last class of 
phenomena only, can be considered as properly 
belonging to the operations of the soul. I have also 
stated than an essential part of the great Self-Existent 
Cause of all things is a free and governing Will. 
Man therefore in this bears the image of his Maker ; 
and inasmuch as he partakes in a certain degree of 
the nature of his Creator, his happiness and his 
destiny must be of a kind somewhat analogous. 

The felicity of the Creator, as far as we can judge, 
must consist in the constant harmony of his nature 
with his acts : in the will to do what is best, and the 
power to effect it ; or, in other words, in unbounded 
knowledge, power, and benevolence. Now, though 
man's finite nature can follow but at humble dis- 
tance, it can follow. He may act in conformity to 
his nature ; he may delight in conferring happiness, 
and in seeking knowledge : and I believe all who 
have tried the experiment will bear testimony that 
this course confers, even in this life, a peace of mind, 
a joy even in the midst of the turmoils of the world, 
which is more akin to heaven than earth. 

Christianity teaches this, but in a simpler manner, 
by precept without argument ; and it might there- 
fore seem at first sight that the argument was super- 
fluous : but it is not ; for those who attend only to 
the precept are apt to consider the command to 
"love our neighbor," — to " bf conformed to Christ," 



64 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

— to " be perfect as our Father which is in heaven 
is perfect," — and the announcement of the misery 
that would attend the neglect of these commands, — 
as merely arbitrary laws, established by the Creator 
for reasons known only to himself; and He is thus 
made to appear as a despotic sovereign, to be feared 
because he has power to punish the infraction of his 
laws, rather than as an object of grateful and affec- 
tionate adoration, no less for the good he has given, 
than for what he has promised. Take the argu- 
ment with the precept — show that it is in the nature of 
things that whatever felicity an intellectual being is 
capable of, must be akin to that enjoyed by the 
Deity ; and that therefore if we seek happiness in 
any other direction, we shall necessarily fail of our 
object — and we immediately see the fatherly kind- 
ness of the command; and the very announcement 
that any other course would be attended with perdu- 
rable misery, instead of appearing in the light of a 
vindictive denunciation of punishment shows itself 
to be what it really is — the caution of an affectionate 
and anxious parent, who 

" metuensque moneret 
Acres esse viros, cum dura praelia gentej" 

and does not send forth his child to the combat till 
he has given him every counsel, and provided him 
with every defence which the fondest concern could 
dictate. 

This is not, I am aware, the most usual mode of 
viewing the subject, and it is perhaps because it is 
not, that our religion is frequently cold and unprofit- 
able. If the conforming our will to the will of the 
Deity, or, in other words, the finding our pleasure 
in the same objects, be requisite to our happiness, 
it is clear that fear will be a very ineffectual agent 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 65 

in the business. We may choose a certain course 
of action because we dread the punishment conse- 
quent on the contrary course, but we shall not do so 
because it is a pleasure to us. Even the most un- 
philosophical religious teacher will allow that this is 
not the state of mind which the true Christian should 
aim at, for, says St. John, " Perfect love casteth out 
fear;" and nothing can be juster than the distinction 
made by the late Alexander Knox, between the im- 
perfect Christian who fears, and the perfect one who 
loves; for as the doing an act under the dread of 
punishment is but a yielding of the will to one of the 
least exalted of the animal emotions, so it tends very 
little, if at all, to the amelioration of the character. 
The evil actions which might engender evil habits 
have been avoided, but we have accustomed our- 
selves to be actuated by a cowardly motive which a 
great mind ought to despise, and a Christian to 
eschew. Added to all this, the emotion which is 
the foundation of this kind of virtue is of a painful 
nature, and therefore another instinctive emotion, — 
that of shrinking from present suffering, — very 
quickly counteracts it; for in proportion as the fear 
is great, will be the effort of nature to allay or stifle 
it ; thus the small influence it exercises over the will 
is transitory also. 

It is no new discovery of mine that we must do 
what we like, or, in other words, like what we do, 
in order to be happy. All men know and act upon 
this principle ; can we suppose it unknown to Him 
who made us ? and can we suppose also, that know- 
ing the conformity of our will to His to be our hap- 
piness, He would take by preference so inadequate 
an agent as fear, to lead us to identify ourselves with 
Him? for this identity of will with the Deity, it 
cannot be too often repeated, is the sum and sub- 
6 



66 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

stance of religion as well as of philosophy. We 
are to become, as it were, a part of the Divine es- 
sence; his children; one in our interests, our affec- 
tions, our designs: and thus identified with the 
Father of our love, we have his wisdom for our 
guide, his power to effect our utmost desires. A 
religion made up of terrors offers no attraction; we 
only half believe it, for it is repugnant to all our 
rational and instinctive feelings ; it is unlovely ; we 
cannot cherish it in our hearts as the source of hap- 
piness, or keep it beside us in our lighter hours as 
our companion and guide. On the contrary, the 
philosophic view being in itself pleasant, never seems 
importunate or misplaced : it lays hold on our feel- 
ings, and dwells with them till it becomes a constant 
principle of action. It is rational and satisfies the 
intellect; and the will thus learning to love what is 
both agreeable and wise, all inclination to any other 
course disappears. We feel that by pursuing a dif- 
ferent one we should be unhappy ; for it is not till 
we have depraved our nature that we make even a 
step in the wrong path without pain, and what at 
first was weighed and judged fitting, becomes at last 
so habitual, that we may act almost without reflec- 
tion, and act right. 

There is always one great obstacle to the recep- 
tion of the simple religion or philosophy (for I know 
no difference between them) taught by Christ during 
his ministry on earth ; it is its very simplicity. It 
is hard to persuade men that it is not some "great 
thing" that is required of them; like Naaman, who 
despised the order to "wash and be clean" of his 
leprosy. Yet it is this simplicity, this conformity 
to common sense and common feeling, which proves 
its divinity the most decidedly ; for the law, and the 
nature to be governed by that law, have evidently 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 67 

been the work of the same hand. "Est enim virtus 
nihil aliud quam in se perfecta et ad sumraum per- 
ducta natura,"* said the Roman philosopher long 
ago, and it is a truth well worth remembering. The 
same objection that is now made to the rational 
views of Christianity, viz., that it makes its profes- 
sors men of this world, was made to its first great 
teacher; "Behold a glutton and a wine-bibber, a 
friend of publicans and sinners." Yet when the 
Saviour thought it not beneath him to sit at the table 
of Zaccheus at what we should now call a large 
dinner party, it is evident that no sour restraints are 
imposed on the Christian, even if we have never 
heard of any rule of life but the following His steps 
who was sent to be an example for us. The Saviour 
did not sit at that table in vain ; we hear of no severe 
reproofs ; no stern lecture ; but he who knew well 
what man's affections could do, won the heart of 
Zaccheus. " The half of my goods I give to the 
poor, and if I have done any wrong to any man, I 
restore him fourfold," was the resolution taken by 
the giver of the feast at that dinner; and it is thus 
that the servant of Christ, the philosopher in the 
true sense of the word — for what is love of wisdom 
but love of the wisdom or %oyo$ of God? — it is thus, 
I say, that the servant of Christ may move in the 
world, blessing and blessed. Polished, eloquent, 
dignified, Christ exhibited, amid the world which he 
did not fly from, a pattern of everything that was 
attractive in man. So may, and so should the 
Christian; and thus sanctify and purify society by 
his presence and example, till the precepts of our 
great Master become its precepts also ; till forgive- 
ness of injuries and purity of life be thought as 

* " Virtue is nothing but the utmost perfection of our nature." 



68 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

necessary to the character of a gentleman, as truth 
is even now ; till amusements and business, trade 
and politics, shall alike own the healing influence, 
and "the kingdoms of the world" become what, — 
notwithstanding the boastful title of Christendom,* — 
they never have been yet, " the kingdoms of God and 
of his Christ." 

It was the pure philosophy of Christianity, its 
exact accordance with every want and wish of our 
nature, that spread the doctrine of the poor fishermen 
of Galilee through the palaces and the schools, no less 
than the shops and the farms, of Greece and Rome. 
It has now ceased to spread, and why ? Is it not be- 
cause its Philosophy is forgotten ? Is it not that by 
being made to consist in a certain set of mysterious 
dogmata which it is almost forbidden to examine, it 
is put on a level with those false systems which shrink 
from the light, because they know they will suffer 
from being seen when exposed to it ? It was not 
thus that Christianity was first preached to the world. 
Its teachers and its martyrs appealed to its rationality, 
to its accordance with the highest conceptions of the 
wisest and the best of the Grecian sages. They 
contrasted its purity with the abominations of Pagan- 
ism ; the brotherly love of its followers, with the 
ferocity, treachery and hatred of the rest of the world; 
they snowed that there must be a God, and that He 
could be no other than they described. The Eternal 
God, said they, must be essentially rational. Exerted 
or not, the wisdom to know, and the power to act 
must be co-eternal in him. We do not worship two 
Gods, as you object to us ; the %oyo$ (rational faculty) 
of God, animated a human form, and spoke to us 
through human lips, " God was in Christ reconciling 

* The domain of Christ. 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 69 

the world to himself," and him we worship. We 
do not say that our God suffered or died. The body 
which he wore as a raiment was sacrificed, but God 
is impassible, one Self-existent Eternal mind.* 
It was thus that the early apologists for Christianity 
explained its tenets to the Pagan world; and the 
Pagan world received them. What have we gained 
by abandoning the philosophy of these Martyrs 
of the truth ? We have abundance of technical 
terms ; but have we the Spirit of the Gospel ? Do 
we bear the badge of Christ, " hereby shall men 
know that ye are my disciples, that ye love one 
another?" If we do not — if rich and poor, Dis- 
senter and Churchman, Romanist and Socinian, 
are, as it were, separate classes that hold no fellow- 
ship together — then is our Christianity as faulty as 
our philosophy — we have " the form of Godliness," 
but not " the power thereof," and however we may 
boast " the temple of the Lord" (and, blessed be God, 
it does yet afford shelter to some whom their Lord 
at his coming will own as his true disciples), we may 
find at last that phrases are of less importance than 
motives ; and see, — Heaven grant that it may not be 
too late ! — that " God is no respecter of persons," but 
that " in every nation he that feareth him and worketh 
righteousness is accepted with him." 

*Vide Tertullian, Athenagoras, Arnobius, &c. &c. 



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4 



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5 



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6 



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Will be Ready in September 1846, 

A FOURTEENTH AND SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME 

OF THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA, 

By HENRY VETHAKE, Esq., LL.D., 

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania, etc. 
8 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



in 



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027 331 845 8 

ADVERTISEMENT. 

Under the title of " Small Books on Great Sub- 
jects," there has lately appeared in London a series \ 
I of works which have attracted much attention from 
i their originality, strength, and conciseness. Not-? 
I withstanding their very high price, they have com- \ 
\ manded a large circulation in England, while that 
\ cause has limited the demand in this country. In 
: placing them, therefore, before the American public 
; in a neat form, and at the very low price of twenty- 
; five cents each, the American publishers hope to I 
j meet with an extended sale. To show the wide 
I circle of interesting subjects embraced by this series, 
! a list is appended of the works already published.- 
| Others are promised of equal attractiveness. 



SMALL BOOKS ON GREAT SUBJECTS, 

TO BE PUBLISHED EY 

JLEJl ff BIsJMJVCHJiRn. 

\ No. I. — Philosophical Theories and Philosophical Experience. (Second 
' Edition.) {.Now Ready.) 

! No. II. — On the Connection between Physiology and Intellectual Sci- 
ence. (Second Edition ) {Now Ready.) 
; No III. — On Man's Power over Himself to Prevent or Control Insanity. 
; No. IV.— An Introduction to Practical Organic Chemistry. 
; No V.— A Brief View of Greek Philosophy up to the Age of Pericles. 

No VI. — A Brief View of Greek Philosophy from the Age of Socrates 
to ihe Coming of Christ. 

No. VII —Christian Doctrine and Practice in the Second Century. 
! No. VIII.— An Exposition of Vulgar and Common Errors, adapted to the 
! Year of Grace mdcccxlv. 

I No. IX — An Introduction to Vegetable Physiology, with References to 
; the Works of De Candolle. Lindley, &c. 
; No. X —On the Principles of Criminal Law. (Now Ready.) 
; No. XL — Christian Sects in the Nineteenth Century. 



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